Spanish-speaking Dual Language Learners Research Articles

The influence of student language and student-teacher relationships on student-specific teacher self-efficacy in early childhood

ABSTRACT Teacher self-efficacy (TSE) changes according to context. Limited research has been conducted to understand how TSE can vary in relation to student characteristics or the student-teacher relationship (STR) in preschool. The aims of the current study were to 1) examine student-specific TSE variability among monolingual English-speaking and Spanish-speaking dual language learners (DLLs) and 2) examine the extent to which STR quality moderates the relationship between student language and student-specific TSE. Results demonstrated that when controlling for closeness in the STR, teachers felt higher levels of student-specific TSE in the domains of instructional support and student engagement for English-speaking students versus DLLs. However, teachers reported equal levels of student-specific TSE in the domains of behavior management and emotional support irrespective of student language. Secondly, STR quality did not significantly moderate relationships between language and student-specific TSE. Limitations and future research directions are discussed.

Dual language learners: Influence of parent education & mobility on school readiness

This study explored the relations between parental formal education, residential mobility, and children's school readiness in a sample of 509 Head Start children, 30% of whom were Spanish-speaking Dual Language Learners (DLLs). Additionally, it explored whether the relations between these demographic factors and school readiness varied as a function of DLL status. Results indicated that parental formal education was associated with higher math and literacy scores, but residential mobility was only marginally associated with lower literacy and math scores. Moreover, the relation between residential mobility and early math varied as a function of DLL status. Additionally, the relation between parent formal education and early math also varied as a function of DLL status. These interactions were not found between residential mobility, parent education, and early literacy. Findings highlight the differential influence of demographic factors on DLLs' school readiness.

Teachers’ Use of Spanish in the Classroom: Implications for Hispanic Dual Language Learners’ Classroom Engagement

ABSTRACT Research Findings: As the population of Hispanic children grows within U.S. preschools, it is increasingly important to understand how these classrooms facilitate school readiness, such as positive engagement with teachers, peers, and tasks, for Spanish-speaking Dual Language Learners (DLLs). A growing literature base indicates that DLL students’ exposure to their native language in the classroom provides deeper access to academic content, and can foster development of essential cognitive, social-emotional, and language skills. Therefore, the current study used an observational measure to examine how teachers’ Spanish language use was related to Hispanic DLLs’ classroom engagement across the academic preschool year. Separate regression models were run for teacher, peer, task, and negative engagement. As expected, results indicated that teachers’ Spanish use was significantly associated with children’s positive engagement to peers. Teachers’ Spanish use was also significantly associated with children’s negative engagement, though the direction of the effect was counterintuitive, as more Spanish use was related to greater negative engagement. Teachers’ Spanish use was not significantly associated with children’s engagement to teachers or tasks. Practice or Policy: The findings of this study are discussed within the context of identifying a set of best practices for facilitating inclusive early learning environments for language-minority students.

Look who’s talking now: Examining language use with dual language learners in preschool classrooms

ABSTRACT The Language Interaction Snapshot (LISn; Sprachman et al., 2009) was used to measure the quantity and quality of language interactions in English and Spanish in 143 preschool classrooms serving Spanish-speaking dual language learners. Both teachers (n = 112) and assistant teachers (n = 92) were included in analyses with a total of 461 Spanish-speaking children. We report the amount of English and Spanish as well as types of language scaffolding used by teachers and assistants. We also disaggregate by classroom language model (Spanish, bilingual, or English instruction) and explore the amount of Spanish and English specifically used by Spanish-speaking teachers and assistants. Seventy five percent of cycles had no language coded and of the rest English was the most frequently used across all classroom language models including with Spanish-speaking teachers and assistants. Implications for improving classroom language environments for DLLs are presented as well as future research directions.

Exploring the predictors of enrollment and kindergarten entry skills of Spanish-speaking dual language learners in a mixed-delivery system of public preschool

Dual language learners (DLLs) – young children learning and developing in multiple languages – make up nearly-one-third of the population of public preschool attendees in the U.S. Yet despite the large number of DLLs attending the nation’s largest public preschool programs – Head Start and state-funded public pre-k – little is known about DLL families’ patterns of selection into each program, nor about the relative benefits of each program for DLLs’ early learning. The present study uses contemporary data from a mixed-delivery system of public preschool in Tulsa, Oklahoma to examine predictors of attending Head Start or Tulsa Public Schools (TPS) pre-k, as well as whether program type is associated with differences in DLLs’ kindergarten entry skills. Among DLLs from economically-disadvantaged families, we find some limited differences between DLLs who selected into TPS public pre-k versus Head Start: TPS public pre-k attenders were more likely to have married mothers, parents who chose a preschool program based on logistical opportunities/constraints rather than programmatic preferences, and greater attention/impulse control skills at the start of preschool than were Head Start attenders. We then examined the association between program type and children’s academic and self-regulation skills at kindergarten entry. Controlling for predictors of differential enrollment and children’s earlier skills, we find no differences in kindergarten skills across students who attended Head Start and TPS public pre-k, suggesting both programs prepare DLLs equally well for school success.

The Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing, Second Edition: Measurement Invariance for Dual Language Learners

The Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing, 2nd Edition (CTOPP-2; Wagner et al., 2013) is commonly used in k-12 public schools to assess basic cognitive processing skills foundational for reading achievement. Psychometric support for its use with dual language learners (DLLs), a group representing over 10% of the school-aged population in the United States, is critical. This study tested the metric and scaler invariance of CTOPP-2 scores among school-aged children ( n = 242; 41.3% Spanish-speaking DLL). Results indicate that the CTOPP-2’s three-factor (i.e., Phonological Awareness, Phonological Memory, and Rapid Automatic Naming) measurement structure displays metric and scalar invariance for DLLs. Model fit was improved when the Phonological Awareness and Phonological Memory factors were combined. Implications for future research and the practice of psychoeducational diagnostic assessment with DLLs are discussed.

Is starting earlier better? A propensity score analysis of toddler-year impacts for English only and Spanish-speaking dual language learners

Most early care and education (ECE) programs serve 3-5 year olds, but enrolling children at younger ages has the potential to multiply the benefits of ECE enrollment. This study examined characteristics of children and family who enrolled as toddlers (18-35 months; n=450) versus preschoolers (36-48 months; n=2,356), then tested the impact of toddler enrollment in high-quality ECE on fall and spring preschool outcomes for English-only and Spanish dual language learners (DLLs). Groups were balanced using propensity score weights. Toddler enrollment was related differentially to parent education, special needs status, food insecurity, and single-parent household status for DLLs and English-dominant peers. Toddler entry was related to better English language skills (fall E.S.=0.13-0.47; spring E.S.=0.10-0.43) and lower teacher-rated self-control skills (fall E.S.=0.12-0.15; spring E.S.=0.12-0.19) than same language peers. English-only children who entered as toddlers were rated as more independent at preschool entry (E.S.=0.15). Differences were not observed in Spanish-language skills, child-teacher attachment, or behavior problems in preschool.

The home mathematics environment of dual-language learning children and their early mathematics skills

The home mathematics environment (HME) can foster children’s mathematics skills. Little is known about this association for children from culturally diverse backgrounds. Using Head Start FACES dataset we categorize children into three groups: English monolingual (n = 949); Spanish-speaking Dual Language Learners (DLLs) fluent in English (n = 346); and Spanish-speaking DLLs not-yet-fluent in English (n = 192), to examine whether the HME is related to children’s early mathematics abilities above and beyond their vocabulary skills. Using multi-group analyses with a structural equation-modeling framework, we found that measurement invariance test supports the factorial equivalence of HME construct between groups. However, while HME positively and significantly predict children’s mathematics skills for the English monolingual group, HME did not significantly predict mathematics skills among the Spanish-speaking DLL groups regardless of their English proficiency. We discuss our findings in relation to the need for additional HME items that are sensitive to diverse cultural contexts.

The role of language comprehension skills and instructional practices in cross-language influence of Spanish-speaking dual language learners’ calculation skills

The purpose of this empirical study was 2-fold: (a) to investigate the relationships between Spanish-speaking dual language learners’ (DLLs, N = 223) Spanish language comprehension skills, Spanish calculation performance, English language comprehension skills, and English calculation performance; and (b) to explore the relationship between teachers’ (N = 20) instructional activities and DLLs’ calculation performance. Three important findings emerged. First, significant relationships occurred: (a) between DLLs’ Spanish vocabulary knowledge and Spanish reading comprehension (β = 0.59, p < 0.05, R2 = 0.37); and (b) between DLLs’ Spanish reading comprehension and Spanish calculation performance (β = 0.17, p < 0.05, R2 = 0.12). Second, a significant cross-linguistic relationship in Spanish and English calculation performance emerged (β = 0.41, p < 0.05, R2 = 0.29). Finally, teachers’ explicit teaching and guided practice significantly predicted DLLs’ Spanish calculation performance, but only teachers’ explicit teaching significantly moderated the impact of DLLs’ Spanish calculation performance on their English calculation performance. These findings support the notion that: (a) DLLs’ Spanish language comprehension skills predict their Spanish calculation performance, which subsequently impacts their English calculation performance; and (b) teachers’ explicit teaching and guided practice directly enhance DLLs’ Spanish calculation performance, which in turn later influences their English calculation performance.

Preschool Children’s Engagement and School Readiness Skills: Exploring Differences between Spanish-speaking Dual Language Learners and Monolingual English-speaking Preschoolers

ABSTRACT Research Findings: The study examined the relationship between Spanish-speaking DLL children’s engagement within the preschool classroom with teachers, peers, and tasks and their school readiness skills compared to monolingual English-speaking peers. Results suggested that DLL children had lower language skills and phonological awareness by the end of the preschool year. However, children’s positive engagement with teachers mediated the relationship between DLL status and children’s language skills. Finally, the relationship between children’s engagement and school readiness outcomes differed by whether children are DLL or monolingual; for DLL children, positively engaging with teachers, peers, and tasks were positively associated with their receptive and expressive vocabulary, phonological awareness, and print knowledge skills. Practice or Policy: The findings highlight how children’s classroom engagement, particularly DLLs, is associated with their school readiness outcomes. That is, DLL and monolingual children are experiencing different levels of engagement expose potential inequities in the levels of quality experienced within classrooms. Classrooms must maximize the opportunities for DLLs to practice their language skills with peers, in particular, across languages as a way of supporting their development.

Treatment effect heterogeneity in the head start impact study: A systematic review of study characteristics and findings.

There have been consistent efforts to assess treatment effect heterogeneity (TEH) of Head Start using the data from the Head Start Impact Study (HSIS), a randomized controlled trial of a federally funded child development program for a nationally representative sample of low-income parents and their 3- and 4-year-old children in the United States. Including 28 studies on TEH of Head Start, this review found that multiple high-risk subgroups (e.g., children with lower cognitive abilities, Spanish-speaking dual language learners) experienced larger gains across a range of developmental and parental outcomes, but mixed results for several subgroups. Most studies focused on subgroup analyses, cognitive and social-emotional outcomes, and short-term effects. Further studies on distributional effects, health and parental outcomes, and long-term effects are warranted. Finally, suggestions for future research on TEH of Head Start are discussed, which are applicable to other child development programs and policy evaluations.

Patterns of preschool teachers’ use of discourse strategies with individual Spanish-speaking dual language learners.

Person-oriented approaches can be used to identify how teachers may draw upon a combination of strategies when interacting with individual children. For nearly 1 third of children under the age of 8 who come from a household where a language other than English is spoken, it is crucial to identify patterns of teachers’ use of discourse strategies that are hypothesized as being particularly important in supporting their unique developmental strengths and needs. The current study used latent profile analysis to (a) describe patterns of child-level experiences of teachers’ use of discourse strategies among a low-income sample of preschool Spanish-speaking dual language learners (DLLs), and (b) examine relations between these patterns, child language skills, family demographic factors, and teacher characteristics. Four classes were identified: (a) low-quality discourse practices (50%), (b) self-talk and simultaneous translation, with low-quality use of other discourse strategies (15%), (c) diverse range of strategies (7%); and (d) closed-ended, open-ended questions and one-on-one conversations (29%). These profiles demonstrated that children experience different patterns of discourse practices that vary across quality and the type of practices. When examining differences in profiles based on child, family, and teacher variables, results revealed that indicators of family SES, children’s age, bilingual expressive vocabulary, and teachers’ experiences of coursework (i.e., preservice) and professional development (i.e., in-service) were associated with patterns between profiles. These results have important implications for classroom instruction and policy. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved)

Understanding How Language of Instruction Impacts Early Literacy Growth for Spanish-Speaking Children

Multitiered systems of support hold promise for dual language learners when culturally and linguistically responsive practices guide instruction. We modeled growth on Spanish and English early literacy skills and examined the role of language exposure and use at the individual and classroom instruction level in a group of 313 Spanish-English-speaking bilingual preschool-age children from 81 classrooms. Results revealed a significant portion of variance in children’s performance was between classrooms. Children demonstrated meaningful growth on all measures except English rhyming. Predominantly Spanish and bilingual instruction produced growth as strong as English instruction on all measures except for first sounds and sound identification where bilingual instruction had a negative impact on growth. Children’s language profiles did not interact with their classroom language of instruction. Implications for understanding the role language of instruction and home language exposure in multitiered systems of support with Spanish-speaking preschoolers are discussed. Impact Statement Preschool-age Spanish-speaking dual language learners grow as quickly in Spanish language instruction as in English instruction on Spanish and English alphabet knowledge and phonological awareness skills. Preschool-age Spanish-speaking dual language learners did not grow as quickly in settings self-identified as providing bilingual instruction as in English-only instruction on English alphabet knowledge and phonological awareness skills. More research is needed to identify the factors in these settings that are related to this difference. Early childhood MTSS models can improve young DLL’s outcomes by facilitating data-based decisions that unpack the nuances of their performance. It is important when considering the needs of DLLs to include performance in each of their languages, understand expected growth rates in each of their languages, and consider tier 1 language of instruction.

Peer effects on dual language learners’ English and Spanish receptive vocabulary development

Using a nationally representative sample of 3- and 4-year-old Spanish-speaking dual language learners (DLLs) attending Head Start (N = 654), this study examined whether mean levels of and variability in peers’ English receptive vocabulary skills were associated with DLLs’ English and Spanish receptive vocabulary skills in the spring. In addition, I tested whether these associations differed depending on the proportion of DLLs in the class. Results showed that DLLs had better English receptive vocabulary growth, but weaker Spanish receptive vocabulary growth when their classmates had higher English receptive vocabulary skills. Variability in peers’ English receptive vocabulary skills was not significantly associated with vocabulary growth in English or Spanish. These patterns did not depend on the proportion of DLLs in the class, pointing to the utility of understanding peer effects in terms of classmates’ skills and not only their characteristics. Findings demonstrate the importance of classmates’ English vocabulary skills for English vocabulary development. However, additional supports are needed to maintain DLLs’ vocabulary development in Spanish.

Semantic priming and reading skills among Spanish-speaking dual language learners

ABSTRACT Substantial research among bilingual adults indicates that exposure to words primes other semantically related words within and across languages, as well as the direct translation equivalents [e.g. Chen and Ng 1989. “Semantic Facilitation and Translation Priming Effects in Chinese-English Bilinguals.” Memory & Cognition 17: 454–462]. However, there is less research on semantic and translation priming among bilingual children. The purpose of this study was to evaluate semantic priming effects as an indicator of underlying lexical quality among Spanish-speaking dual language learners (DLLs) in the U.S., including examination of whether semantic and translation priming effects were related to children’s reading-related skills. Ninety-five Spanish-speaking DLLs in second and fourth grade completed an eye-tracking semantic priming task along with measures of English and Spanish reading-related skills. Results indicated that there were consistent translation priming effects, with observed translation priming stronger from English to Spanish than from Spanish to English. Additionally, there were consistent within-English semantic priming effects. Results suggested that semantic priming effects were stronger for children with higher levels of English vocabulary and reading comprehension than they were for children with lower levels of English vocabulary and reading comprehension. Findings are discussed in the context of theoretical models of bilingual language processing, as well as the lexical quality hypothesis [e.g. Perfetti 2007. “Reading Ability: Lexical Quality to Comprehension.” Scientific Studies of Reading 11: 357–383].

The Home Numeracy Environment and Measurement of Numeracy Performance in English and Spanish in Dual Language Learners

Some evidence suggests that the home numeracy environment (HNE) is related to children’s numeracy. Socioeconomic status (SES) and language minority status can also influence children’s HNE and numeracy. Limited HNE research focuses on dual language learners (DLLs). Using a sample of preschool-aged children ( n = 98) from low socioeconomic status (SES) backgrounds, we examined differences between Spanish-speaking DLLs’ ( n = 37) and monolingual English speakers’ ( n = 61) numeracy, differences in HNEs, and predictive role of HNE on numeracy. Using frequentist and Bayesian t tests, we found that numeracy was not significantly different between DLLs and monolingual English speakers when DLLs’ numeracy was measured in English or in both English and Spanish. However, DLLs’ Spanish numeracy was lower than monolingual English speakers’ English numeracy, t(96) = 2.10, p = .038, Bayes factors (BF10) = 1.51. HNE did not significantly predict either group’s numeracy regardless of assessment language. This study is an important step toward understanding DLLs’ HNE and numeracy.

Reading Motivation in Spanish-Speaking Dual Language Learners: Comparing Two Types of Student Report

Employing a mixed methods approach, this study examined the reading motivations of dual language learners (DLLs) in Grades 3–5 in a suburban Title I school in which the student population was predominantly Hispanic. Twenty-one students completed self-report surveys and participated in interviews focused on two intrinsic motivations (involvement and curiosity), two extrinsic motivations (competition and recognition), and self-efficacy for reading. Quantitative analyses of the survey and interview data were consistent in indicating that the students experienced these motivations to a moderate to strong degree, with the exception that interview-based scores for competition were fairly low, in comparison to both the interview-based scores for the other motivations and the survey-based score for competition. Correlations between scores on the survey and interview measures for each construct varied. Qualitative analyses illustrated the depth and variety of students’ thinking about their reading motivations, and provided insight into studying and strengthening students’ reading motivation in ways that may be particularly relevant for DLLs.

Preschool teachers' use of discourse practices with Spanish-speaking dual language learners

Preschool teachers should use specific discourse strategies to meet the unique needs of dual language learners (DLLs). The absence of research on teachers' use of discourse strategies with DLLs is partially due to the lack of measurement tools. This study describes the discourse language environment of preschool classrooms. It tests the factorial structure of a child-level observational measure of teacher's discourse strategies – the DUALLS – and associations with bilingual receptive and expressive skills and self-regulation skills in a sample of four-and five-year-old DLL children (n = 152) across 38 classrooms. Factor analysis revealed two factors: (1) didactic and language modeling; and (2) elaborative and responsive. Preschool teachers' use of didactic and language modeling strategies were positively related to children's bilingual expressive vocabulary skills and negatively related to children's positive engagement. Preschool teachers' use of elaborative and responsive language was positively related to children's positive engagement.

Direct and indirect effects of executive functions, reading engagement, and higher order strategic processes in the reading comprehension of Dual Language Learners and English Monolinguals

Given concerns about the reading achievement of Dual Language Learners (DLLs) in comparison to English Monolinguals (EMs), this study examined individual difference variables contributing to English reading comprehension growth in Spanish-speaking DLLs and their EM counterparts in Grades 1–4. The participants, who included 578 DLLs and 412 EMs, were primarily from low-income backgrounds. They were assessed in the fall and spring of one school year on decoding, vocabulary, and oral language comprehension (established predictors of reading comprehension for DLLs and EMs); higher order strategic processes, executive functions, and reading engagement (understudied predictors for DLLs); and reading comprehension. Among the key findings were that each of the three understudied predictors was associated with reading comprehension growth over the school year, over and above the contributions of the established predictors, in both language groups. Additionally, higher order strategic processes partially mediated the relations of executive functioning in the fall with reading comprehension in the spring for both DLLs and EMs. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings for understanding and strengthening the reading achievement of all students are considered.

Head Start Classroom Features and Language and Literacy Growth among Children with Diverse Language Backgrounds

ABSTRACTResearch Findings: Using a nationally representative sample of Head Start recipients, this study compared Head Start classroom contexts and English language and literacy skill trajectories for Spanish-speaking dual-language learners (DLLs) and English speakers from preschool through kindergarten. It also examined whether Head Start classroom characteristics were differentially associated with skill development across groups, both concurrently in Head Start and longitudinally in kindergarten. Results indicated that classroom characteristics tended to be similarly associated with skills across language subgroups. Regardless of language status, children whose classrooms were instructionally supportive and not overly managed tended to have higher language and/or literacy skills in Head Start. Children whose Head Start classrooms had higher Emotional Support and were not overly managed had higher kindergarten language skills. Child-initiated activities were associated with higher language skills, whereas teacher-directed activities were related to higher literacy skills. DLLs benefited more from Emotional Support and child-initiated activities in some skills. Practice or Policy: If replicated, findings have practical implications for Head Start professional development and classroom practices. Specifically, teacher professional development might focus more intensively on improving Emotional and Instructional Support, and teachers and program administrators might consider allocating more time to child-initiated and teacher-directed activities to build specific skills.